In the late 60s, the British linguists analyzed the importance of communicative language teaching rather than the use of grammatical, lexical and phonological rules. CLT is deployed to develop communicative proficiency. It has some basic objectives to improve communication skills. Some of the objectives of communicative language teaching are given below:. Communicative language teaching is a learner-centred method that mainly focuses on learning the language through communication.
The major characteristics of communicative language teaching are given below:. The group used studies of the needs of European language learners, and in particular a preliminary document prepared by a British linguist, D. Wilkins's contribution was an analysis of the communicative meanings that a language learner needs to understand and express. Rather than describe the core of language through traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary, Wilkins attempted to demonstrate the systems of meanings that lay behind the communicative uses of language.
The terms notional-functional approach and functional approach are also sometimes used. Both American and British proponents now see it as an approach and not a method that aims to a make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and b develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication.
Howatt distinguishes between a "strong" and a "weak" version of Communicative Language Teaching:. There is, in a sense, a 'strong' version of the communicative approach and a 'weak' version. The weak version which has become more or less standard practice in the last ten years, stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching If the former could be described as 'learning to use' English, the latter entails 'using English to learn it.
Finocchiaro and Brumfit contrast the major distinctive features of the Audiolingual Method and the Communicative Approach , according to their interpretation. Theory of language. The communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes referred to as "communicative competence.
Chomsky 3. Hymes held that such a view of linguistic theory was sterile, that linguistic theory needed to be seen as part of a more general theory incorporating communication and culture. In Hymes's view, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for language use with respect to. This theory of what knowing a language entails offers a much more comprehensive view than Chomsky's view of competence, which deals primarily with abstract grammatical knowledge.
Another linguistic theory of communication favored in CLT is Halliday's functional account of language use. He described seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first language:. Learning a second language was similarly viewed by proponents of Communicative Language Teaching as acquiring the linguistic means to perform different kinds of functions.
At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language follow. Language is a system for the expression of meaning. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses. Theory of learning. In contrast to the amount that has been written in Communicative Language Teaching literature about communicative dimensions of language, little has been written about learning theory.
Elements of an underlying learning theory can be discerned in some CLT practices, however. One such element might be described as the communication principle : Activities that involve real communication promote learning. A second element is the task principle : Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning Johnson Learning activities are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and authentic language use rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns.
These principles, we suggest, can be inferred from CLT practices e. They address the conditions needed to promote second language learning, rather than the processes of language acquisition. More recent accounts of Communicative Language Teaching, however, have attempted to describe theories of language learning processes that are compatible with the communicative approach.
Other theorists e. Acquisition refers to the unconscious development of the target language system as a result of using the language for real communication. Learning is the conscious representation of grammatical knowledge that has resulted from instruction, and it cannot lead to acquisition. The learned system can serve only as a monitor of the output of the acquired system. Krashen and other second language acquisition theorists typically stress that language learning comes about through using language communicatively, rather than through practicing language skills.
Johnson and Littlewood consider an alternative learning theory that they also see as compatible with CLT-a skill-learning model of learning.
According to this theory, the acquisition of communicative competence in a language is an example of skill development. The fourth inconsistency between efl learners and teachers deals with the ways in which errors should be treated and evaluation should be carried out in foreign language classrooms. Concerning error correction, teachers' attitudes tended to be in line with Larsen-Freeman and Richards's claim that as far as errors do not impede communication and comprehension, they should be treated as natural in the learning process.
Regarding the focus of assessment, while the majority of learners On the other hand, the results oppose the findings of studies conducted in other contexts e. The two factors that did not reveal a significant difference between teachers and students' attitudes were the use of learners' native language in efl classes items 22, 23, and 24 and employing group and pair work items 25, 26, 27, and These findings seem to contrast sharply with those of Sullivan , who argued that communication in the classroom is much easier for learners in traditional whole class settings rather than in small group ones.
On the other hand, the findings seem to be in accordance with Nguyen , who believed learners are no longer thoroughly passive but actually enjoy taking part in activities that assist them in using the language. They may also express that learner preferences seem to be gradually moving from the perceived comfort of traditional whole-class setting activities toward group and pair work activities e.
The obtained results showed that both groups of participants held favorable attitudes toward clt principles. This is a positive indication for those interested in the implementation of clt in the context of Iran because it reveals that the main clt tenets, which largely revolve around learner-centeredness, have a good level of acceptance in this context. The findings of this study have a range of implications and would likely be most beneficial to three constituents of English language education: efl teachers, reform agents, and efl teacher education programs.
Under the premise that there is a mutual relationship between beliefs and behavior it behooves teachers and learners to reflect upon their beliefs about English language education and their teaching and learning experiences to see whether or not there are any gaps, mismatches, or self-justifications between their real experience and the relevant underlying theories of language teaching and learning. In addition, teachers need to carefully inspect whether they stick to their beliefs merely because their attitudes are not in harmony with the demands of the reforms.
Furthermore, they need to examine whether their negative attitudes toward certain reform policies are due to their desire to cling to the status quo which they may consider as the ones threatened by the policies and reform agents.
Change agents in education must accept that simply developing and manipulating reform policies is not enough to ensure that the policies will be applied by efl teachers in their classroom teaching. Since teachers are living the realities of educational sites and know the ins and outs of existing constraints, reform agents must realize that teachers are the ones who are at the center of English language education and therefore determine the success of any kind of reform.
Accordingly, any reform attempt that does not take teachers' attitudes into consideration will likely fail. In other words, by providing reflection opportunities for efl teachers, teacher education programs can help them to view their beliefs and practices critically and reflectively to find the gaps between them, making them better able to close such gaps whenever possible. Anani Sarab, M.
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